A symbolic gesture
In 1960, archaeologist Ralph Solecki was excavating Shanidar Cave in the Zagros Mountains when he discovered the skeleton of a Neanderthal man, designated Shanidar 4. The individual, a 30- to 45-year-old male, was found lying on his left side in a fetal position. Soil samples collected from around the approximately 75,000-year-old remains contained something unexpected: clumps of pollen.
The analysis, performed years later by Arlette Leroi-Gourhan, identified pollen from at least eight different species of flowers, including yarrow (Achillea), cornflower (Centaurea), and hollyhock. Many of these plants possess known medicinal properties; yarrow, for example, is an astringent, and hollyhock can be used for anti-inflammatory purposes. The pollen was not scattered thinly, as would be expected from wind-blown contamination, but was concentrated in distinct clusters. This suggested entire flower heads had been placed in the grave. The find led to the "flower burial" hypothesis, suggesting that Neanderthals engaged in symbolic rituals, deliberately burying their dead with floral tributes. This idea challenged the prevailing view of Neanderthals as unintelligent.
A blooming debate
Decades after the initial discovery, the flower burial hypothesis faced scrutiny. Researchers proposed alternative explanations for the pollen clumps. One theory involves the Persian jird (Meriones persicus), a gerbil-like rodent native to the region. These animals are known to burrow extensively and store large quantities of seeds and flowers in their dens. The presence of ancient rodent burrows near the Shanidar 4 skeleton supports the idea that the pollen could be a result of animal activity, not Neanderthal ritual.
Another possibility is contamination by nesting solitary bees, which are known to build nests in the cave floor and could have introduced the concentrated pollen. Some analyses also showed that the identified flowers do not all bloom at the same time, which complicates the narrative of them being gathered for a single burial event. The debate highlights the difficulty of interpreting ancient evidence and distinguishing between cultural actions and natural processes.
New life for an old mystery
Excavations resumed at Shanidar Cave in the 2010s, leading to a new find that added more information to the story. In 2018, researchers found the remains of another Neanderthal, named Shanidar Z, near the original flower burial location. This individual, a female who lived around 75,000 years ago, was also found in a specific position, with her left hand curled under her head and a rock placed behind her head like a cushion.
The sediment around Shanidar Z showed signs that the gully she was placed in had been intentionally dug out to accommodate her body. While this find does not definitively solve the flower mystery, the evidence for deliberate placement and body arrangement for multiple individuals in the same location suggests that Neanderthals at Shanidar Cave had a consistent, repeated mortuary practice. The question of whether flowers were part of that practice remains open, but the evidence for complex, "human" behavior among Neanderthals is stronger than ever.