Medieval Trade Written in Pigment
In the scriptoria of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, artists created brightly colored religious manuscripts. Today, scientific analysis of these 13th-century artifacts reveals a story of global trade routes and advanced chemical knowledge. The capital of this kingdom was Sis, now the Turkish city of Kozan, where the ruins of its once-formidable castle still stand. The manuscripts created here were colored with pigments sourced from thousands of kilometers away.
Using non-invasive techniques like X-ray fluorescence and Raman spectroscopy, researchers identify the molecular composition of the paints. The most prized blue, ultramarine, is derived from grinding the semi-precious stone lapis lazuli. Geochemical analysis confirms its origin: the Sar-i Sang mines in the Badakhshan province of Afghanistan, the only known source for high-quality lapis lazuli in the ancient world. This stone traveled along the Silk Road, a network of trade routes connecting Asia to Europe, eventually reaching the Cilician capital, where it was valued more highly than gold. The reds in the manuscripts also record the trade. Some are made from cinnabar (mercury sulfide), while bright crimson comes from cochineal. Scientific testing distinguishes between local Armenian cochineal, derived from the insect Porphyrophora hamelii, and kermes red, sourced from the insect Kermes vermilio found across the Mediterranean. This variety shows the kingdom's access to both local resources and international markets.
A Script for a Kingdom
The Cilician manuscripts are chemically complex and represent a high point in Armenian artistic and literary culture. The period saw the flourishing of the Cilician school of miniature painting, which blended traditional Armenian styles with influences from Byzantine and European Crusader art. The most celebrated illuminator of this school was Toros Roslin, active in the mid-13th century, who signed at least seven surviving manuscripts. His work is noted for its delicate lines and dynamic figures, use of color and space.
This era also saw a significant evolution in Armenian writing. Scribes in Cilicia perfected a rounded, minuscule script called bologir. This cursive form was faster to write than the older, more angular erkatagir (uncial) script, allowing for more prolific book production. The bologir developed in Cilicia became the dominant script for Armenian literature and is the basis for most modern Armenian typefaces. The kingdom of Cilicia fell to the Mamluks in 1375, but its manuscripts record its scientific and cultural achievements.