The world's only source of cloves
Until the 18th century, the clove tree, Syzygium aromaticum, grew exclusively on Ternate, Tidore, and a few other volcanic islands in the North Maluku province of Indonesia. The combination of volcanic soil and a tropical marine climate created the perfect environment for this one plant. The spice we call a clove is the tree's unopened flower bud. These buds contain a high concentration of the aromatic chemical compound eugenol, which makes up 80-90% of clove essential oil. This compound gives the spice its intense, pungent flavor and aroma.
Archaeological evidence shows that cloves were traded out of the Maluku Islands as early as 1720 BC, with specimens found by archaeologists in Syria. By 200 BCE, envoys to the Han Dynasty court in China were required to chew cloves to sweeten their breath before speaking to the emperor. For centuries, the source of this valuable spice was a closely guarded secret, controlled by local sultanates and a complex network of traders. The Sultanate of Ternate, in particular, grew incredibly wealthy and powerful from exclusive control over the world's clove supply.
A monopoly broken by a single tree
When Europeans arrived in the early 16th century, they fought for control of the lucrative spice trade. First the Portuguese, then the Spanish, and finally the Dutch sought to dominate the market. In 1607, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established Fort Oranje on Ternate, which was its headquarters until 1619. The VOC enforced a brutal monopoly. To keep prices artificially high, they restricted cultivation and engaged in "extirpation"—the destruction of any clove trees not under their direct control. Anyone caught growing, possessing, or smuggling clove plants faced the death penalty. The company would burn or dump any harvest that exceeded their annual export limit of 800-1000 tons.
This monopoly was finally broken in 1770 by a French missionary and horticulturalist named Pierre Poivre. Poivre managed to smuggle seedlings from a single surviving tree, known as Afo, hidden on the slopes of Ternate's Gamalama volcano. He successfully transported the seedlings to the French colonies of Mauritius and Réunion. From there, clove cultivation spread to other parts of the world, including Zanzibar and Madagascar, ending the Dutch stranglehold on the global supply. The original Afo tree lived for approximately 400 years before dying, but its descendants now supply the entire world with cloves.